Carbon dot-based biosensors for the detection of communicable and non -communicable diseases.

Due to their fascinating chemical, optical, electrical, and biological properties carbon dots (CDs or CDots), carbon quantum dots (CQDs), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have attracted attention in biosensing as they can greatly improve the detection limit, sensitivity, and selectivity of biosensors. In general, CDs, CQDs, and GQDs are a class of carbon-based nanomaterials that are characterized by extraordinary fluorescence, a size less than 10 nm, high stability, low toxicity, and being easy to synthesize and presenting functional groups in their surface area that vary according to their synthesis source. In this review, a general description of the main methods and precursors reported in the scientific literature for the synthesis of CDs, CQDs, and GQDs are presented, as well as the chemical, optical, electrical, and biological properties that stand out the most from them; moreover, the main objective of this review is to summarize the application of these carbonaceous nanomaterials in biosensors for the detection of communicable and non-communicable diseases. The article summarizes the applications of CDs, CQDs, and GQDs according to the group of diseases they detected using the international classification of diseases in its 10th edition (ICD-10). To facilitate the reader's access to significant information from these biosensors, several tables summarize the information associated with the type of biomarker, the working ranges, and the biosensor assembly.

Optical Biosensors for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring.

Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is a fundamental tool when administering drugs that have a limited dosage or high toxicity, which could endanger the lives of patients. To carry out this monitoring, one can use different biological fluids, including blood, plasma, serum, and urine, among others. The help of specialized methodologies for TDM will allow for the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic analysis of drugs and help adjust the dose before or during their administration. Techniques that are more versatile and label free for the rapid quantification of drugs employ biosensors, devices that consist of one element for biological recognition coupled to a signal transducer. Among biosensors are those of the optical biosensor type, which have been used for the quantification of different molecules of clinical interest, such as antibiotics, anticonvulsants, anti-cancer drugs, and heart failure. This review presents an overview of TDM at the global level considering various aspects and clinical applications. In addition, we review the contributions of optical biosensors to TDM.

Survey of Pain Knowledge and Analgesia in Dogs and Cats by Colombian Veterinarians.

A questionnaire study was conducted among 131 veterinarians practicing in the city of Medellin, Colombia, to assess views on pain evaluation and management in dogs and cats. When pain recognition and quantification abilities were used as a perceived competence of proper pain assessment, only 83/131 (63.4%, confidence interval (CI) 0.55⁻0.72) were deemed to have satisfactory skills, with the rest considered to be deficient. There were 49/131 (37.4) veterinarians who had participated in continuing education programs and were more confident assessing pain, with an odds ratio (±standard error) of 2.84 ± 1.15 (p = 0.01; CI 1.27⁻6.32). In addition, the odds of using pain scales was 4.28 ± 2.17 (p < 0.01, CI 1.58⁻11.55) greater if they had also participated in continuing education programs. The term multimodal analgesia was familiar to 77 (58.7%) veterinarians who also claimed to use more than one approach to pain control. Nevertheless, homeopathy was the preferred alternative approach in 71/77 (92%). There were major misconceptions on side effects and/or contraindications for use of opioids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) by most veterinarians. In addition, the lack of multimodal analgesia by at least 40% of the practitioners, combined with heavy reliance on weak analgesics (i.e., tramadol) or those with no proven record of efficacy (homeopathic remedies), denotes major deficits in education at the undergraduate level and a need for additional continuing education designed to fulfill the gaps in knowledge identified in this study, and overcome ideological convictions not supported by scientific evidence.

Efecto de la fermentación sobre la actividad antioxidante de diferentes clones de cacao colombiano / Effect of fermentation on the antioxidant activity of different Colombian cocoa clones

Introducción: el cacao es una de las principales fuentes de polifenoles. Estos compuestos se encuentran relacionados con la actividad antioxidante y las características organolépticas del cacao y sus subproductos. Durante el procesamiento, los granos de cacao son sometidos a diferentes etapas que pueden afectar el contenido de esos metabolitos, pero que son cruciales para el desarrollo de la calidad organoléptica. Una de estas etapas es la fermentación. Objetivo: evaluar el efecto de la fermentación sobre el contenido de metabolitos secundarios y la actividad antioxidante en 5 clones de cacao cultivados en Colombia. Métodos: en los clones estudiados se determinó el contenido de fenoles totales, antocianinas totales y taninos condensados, mediante métodos espectrofotométricos; así como catequina, epicatequina, teobromina y cafeína por cromatografía líquida de alta resolución. La capacidad antioxidante se evaluó mediante las metodologías del DPPH. (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power), ORAC (oxygen radical antioxidant capacity) y la capacidad atrapadora de radicales superóxido. Resultados: el efecto de la fermentación sobre los clones de cacao no fue uniforme, observándose tanto cambios positivos como negativos en los contenidos de los diversos metabolitos secundarios y la actividad antioxidante, en dependencia de la variedad. Sin embargo, los cambios en la actividad antioxidante expresada como TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) DPPH están correlacionados con los diversos cambios en el contenido de fenoles totales durante el proceso de fermentación y descritos por la expresión siguiente: DDPPH= 6,36099*Dfenoles+5,10923, con r²= 0,982. Conclusiones: la fermentación afecta el potencial antioxidante de los clones de cacao, lo cual es importante para el desarrollo de las propiedades organolépticas de los productos finales.

Introduction: cocoa is one of the main sources of polyphenols. These compounds are related with the antioxidant activity and sensory characteristics of cocoa and its sub-products. During processing, cocoa beans are subjected to different stages, which may affect the content of these metabolites. However, these processes are crucial in the development of organoleptic quality of cocoa beans. One of these stages is the fermentation. Objective: to evaluate the effect of fermentation on the content of secondary metabolites and the antioxidant activity in five Colombian cocoa clones. Methods: the total phenol content, total anthocyanins and condensate tannins were determined for the studied clones by spectrophotometric methods. Additionally, the content of catechin, epicatechin, theobromine and caffeine were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The antioxidant capacity of cocoa clones was determined by the methods DPPH. (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power), ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) and superoxide radical scavenging capacity. Results: the effect of fermentation on cocoa clones was not uniform. Both positive and negative changes in the contents of various secondary metabolites and antioxidant activity were observed depending on the variety. However, changes in antioxidant activity expressed as TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) DPPH were correlated with the changes in the total phenol content during fermentation and described by the following expression: DDPPH= 6.36099* Dphenols + 5.10923, with r² = 0.982. Conclusions: fermentation affects the antioxidant potential of cocoa clones, which is important for the development of organoleptic properties of final products.